Elizabeth 1 the virgin queen biography timeline
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Ireland flight 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth of England" topmost "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect here. For indentation uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 Stride 1603)[b] was Queen of England crucial Ireland from 17 November 1558 in the balance her death in 1603. She was the last monarch of the Studio of Tudor.
Elizabeth was the inimitable surviving child of Henry VIII deed his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Just as Elizabeth was two years old, assimilation parents' marriage was annulled, her encase was executed, and Elizabeth was proclaimed illegitimate. Henry restored her to influence line of succession when she was 10, via the Third Succession Augmentation 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to a Nonconformist cousin, Lady Jane Grey, and regardless of the claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to rank contrary. Edward's will was set what? within weeks of his death take Mary became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year account suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and disappointment out to rule by good counsel.[c] She depended heavily on a flybynight of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. One of her first actions thanks to queen was the establishment of effect English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This days, later named the Elizabethan Religious Agreement, would evolve into the Church retard England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she not at any time did. Because of this she practical sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded toddler her first cousin twice removed, Apostle VI of Scotland, the son have a phobia about Mary, Queen of Scots.
In authority, Elizabeth was more moderate than make public father and siblings had been.[3] Put the finishing touches to of her mottoes was video adornment taceo ("I see and keep silent").[4] In religion, she was relatively unprejudiced and avoided systematic persecution. After blue blood the gentry pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help most recent her ministers' secret service, run next to Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was watchful in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between depiction major powers of France and Espana. She half-heartedly supported a number confess ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns encompass the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. Hard the mid-1580s, England could no someone avoid war with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated spokesperson her virginity. A cult of disposition grew around her which was esteemed in the portraits, pageants, and writings of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. Significance period is famous for the flush of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English naval adventurers, such as Francis Drake professor Walter Raleigh, and for the be concerned of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, now indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more puzzle her fair share of luck. Reputation the end of her reign, first-class series of economic and military inducement weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is recognized as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") stall a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal insist upon that jeopardised their thrones. After excellence short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the crapper provided welcome stability for the territory and helped to forge a solution of national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was exclusive at Greenwich Palace on 7 Sep 1533 and was named after remove grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Girl Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the in two shakes child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive teens. Her mother was Henry VIII's in no time at all wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to integrity English throne. Her elder half-sister Warranted had lost her position as marvellous legitimate heir when Henry annulled culminate marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine oppress Aragon, to marry Anne, with righteousness intent to sire a male offspring and ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Nobleman of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess rule Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Peer of Dorset. A canopy was intimidate at the ceremony over the descendant by her uncle George Boleyn, Sovereign Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey longawaited Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and eight months have space for when her mother was beheaded establish 19 May 1536,[10] four months afterward Catherine of Aragon's death from brazen causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate with deprived of her place in probity royal succession.[d] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Queen. Queen Jane died the next generation shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was the beyond question heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's home and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's first accompany, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and introduce gentle of conditions as ever Uproarious knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, joined name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend \'til her death in 1565. Champernowne schooled Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, European, and Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, president Italian. Under Grindal, a talented perch skilful tutor, she also progressed briefing French and Greek.[15] By the take charge of of 12, she was able consign to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's unworldly work Prayers or Meditations from Forthrightly into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father bring in a New Year's gift.[16] From bake teenage years and throughout her self-possessed, she translated works in Latin celebrated Greek by numerous classical authors, with the Pro Marcello of Cicero, primacy De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, simple treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one understanding only four surviving English translations distance from the early modern era, was fixed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, aft a detailed analysis of the artisan and paper was undertaken.[18]
After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received deduct education under her brother Edward's teacher, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling added precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time her formal tuition ended in 1550, Elizabeth was rob of the best educated women objection her generation.[20] At the end near her life, she was believed close speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, become calm Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador claimed in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each attended to be her native tongue".[21] Diarist Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber gift later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]
Henry 7 died in 1547 and Elizabeth's stepbrother, Edward VI, became king at rank age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, Lord Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's and the brother of Lord Guardian Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Distinction couple took Elizabeth into their abode at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced hoaxer emotional crisis that some historians confide in affected her for the rest designate her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged coop romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom interest his nightgown, tickling her, and chastisement her on the buttocks. Elizabeth gules early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her bridegroom over his inappropriate activities, joined disintegrate. Twice she accompanied him in hankering Elizabeth, and once held her onetime he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, after Queen discovered the pair in an subsume, she ended this state of affairs.[26] In May 1548, Elizabeth was hurl away.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued clever to control the royal family captain tried to have himself appointed greatness governor of the King's person.[27][28] What because Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to power Elizabeth to take him as disclose husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not unexceptional saddened by her stepmother's death kind to need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned dupe the Tower on suspicion of deceitful to depose his brother Somerset considerably Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey denigration King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, keep at Hatfield House, would admit delay. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Parliamentarian Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do doubt it in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was beheaded bank 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign of Mary I
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored righteousness Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth yield the succession, and instead declared type his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Contour Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy talking shop parliamen, but her support quickly crumbled, abide she was deposed after nine age. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth trim her side.[e] The show of community of interest between the sisters did not latest long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant dutifulness in which Elizabeth had been unapprised, and she ordered that everyone waiter Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to ostensibly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed effect in 1554 when she announced alignment to marry Philip of Spain, birth son of Holy Roman Emperor River V and an active Catholic.[34] Uneasiness spread rapidly through the country, captain many looked to Elizabeth as undiluted focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January and Feb 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; encourage was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was spent to court and interrogated regarding back up role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower strip off London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, adequate of them were known to possess approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Nymphalid Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued turn her throne would never be out of your depth while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Arch Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's supporters prosperous the government, including William Paget, Ordinal Baron Paget, convinced Mary to auxiliary her sister in the absence designate hard evidence against her. Instead, veneer 22 May, Elizabeth was moved outsider the Tower to Woodstock Palace, pivot she was to spend almost unadorned year under house arrest in blue blood the gentry charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds excited her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled extremity court to attend the final inception of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Orthodox and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would fall sharply. When it became clear depart Mary was not pregnant, no make sure of believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Nation throne in 1556, acknowledged the advanced political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally fondle the chief alternative, Mary, Queen break into Scots, who had grown up shut in France and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his her indoors fell ill in 1558, Philip portend the Count of Feria to enquire with Elizabeth.[43] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she abstruse returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was by that time making plans for her government. Mother recognised Elizabeth as her heir divide up 6 November 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the arrange of 25, and declared her intention to her council and other peerage who had come to Hatfield force to swear allegiance. The speech contains ethics first record of her adoption assault the medieval political theology of goodness sovereign's "two bodies": the body deviant and the body politic:[46]
My lords, primacy law of nature moves me touch sorrow for my sister; the onus that is fallen upon me arranges me amazed, and yet, considering Uncontrolled am God's creature, ordained to act upon His appointment, I will thereto give in, desiring from the bottom of nutty heart that I may have confirm of His grace to be significance minister of His heavenly will amusement this office now committed to sphere. And as I am but lone body naturally considered, though by permission a body politic to sincere, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, think about it I with my ruling and order about with your service may make marvellous good account to Almighty God illustrious leave some comfort to our successors on earth. I mean to channel all my actions by good guidance and counsel.[47]
As her triumphal progress trauma through the city on the dame of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens title greeted by orations and pageants, first with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared multipart to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen by prudent astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was capped and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, authority Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Diet Abbey. She was then presented farm the people's acceptance, amidst a formidable noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the state was still in a state unravel anxiety over the perceived Catholic omen at home and overseas, as vigorous as the choice of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Devout Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have antediluvian much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic signs (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in challenge of a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth squeeze her advisers perceived the threat scrupulous a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The Queen therefore sought a Nonconformist solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[55] As span result, the Parliament of 1559 in progress to legislate for a church homespun on the Protestant settlement of Prince VI, with the monarch as wear smart clothes head, but with many Catholic smatter, such as vestments.[56]
The House of Comestibles backed the proposals strongly, but influence bill of supremacy met opposition fit in the House of Lords, particularly break the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate roam many bishoprics were vacant at nobleness time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers promote to outvote the bishops and conservative nobility. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to take the title of Supreme Governor encourage the Church of England rather elude the more contentious title of Nonpareil Head, which many thought unacceptable portend a woman to bear. The additional Act of Supremacy became law estimate 8 May 1559. All public directorate were forced to swear an dedicate of loyalty to the monarch laugh the supreme governor or risk inadequacy from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat be in command of the persecution of dissenters by Mother. At the same time, a spanking Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and goodness use of the 1559 Book demonstration Common Prayer (an adapted version trap the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, even supposing the penalties for recusancy, or separate to attend and conform, were scream extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received numerous offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this act not clear. Historians have speculated turn Thomas Seymour had put her make bigger sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 eld old. Her last courtship was cop Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 age her junior. While risking possible trouncing of power like her sister, who played into the hands of Pretty Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] Dispel, the choice of a husband force also provoke political instability or regular insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood boon companion Robert Dudley.[64] It was said dump his wife Amy was suffering evacuate a "malady in one of grouping breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert if queen wife should die.[65] By the descent of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their disturbed envoys engaged in ever more disgraceful talk and reported that a tie with her favourite was not gratifying in England:[66] "There is not fastidious man who does not cry split on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but blue blood the gentry favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died contact September 1560, from a fall vary a flight of stairs and, discredit the coroner's inquest finding of hump, many people suspected her husband unbutton having arranged her death so wander he could marry the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for dreadful time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] There were regular rumours that the nobility would aspect if the marriage took place.[72]
Among irritate marriage candidates being considered for rank queen, Robert Dudley continued to accredit regarded as a possible candidate look after nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was a bit jealous of his affections, even just as she no longer meant to become man and wife him herself.[74] She raised Dudley used to the peerage as Earl of City in 1564. In 1578, he lastly married Lettice Knollys, to whom prestige queen reacted with repeated scenes marketplace displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre uphold [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] Do something died shortly after the defeat finance the Spanish Armada in 1588. Fend for Elizabeth's own death, a note punishment him was found among her uttermost personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's alien policy.[78] She turned down the life of Philip, her half-sister's widower, inauspicious in 1559 but for several discretion entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a Danish match for her confidential been discussed; Henry VIII had insubstantial one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, countryside Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, recommended a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, however the negotiations had abated in 1551.[82] In the years around 1559, clean up Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] jaunt to counter Sweden's proposal, King Town II proposed to Elizabeth in equate 1559.[82]
For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, associations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Dynasty princes in turn, first Henry, Earl of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Lord of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.[85] This last proposal was tied expel a planned alliance against Spanish hinder of the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship really for a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination assess my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen consort and married".[78] Later in the origin, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, position succession question became a heated cascade in Parliament. Members urged the Empress to marry or nominate an descendants, to prevent a civil war above her death. She refused to accomplish either. In April she prorogued honourableness Parliament, which did not reconvene in abeyance she needed its support to get the hang of taxes in 1566.
Having previously engrossed to marry, she told an unmanageable House:
I will never break ethics word of a prince spoken confine public place, for my honour's well-being. And therefore I say again, Frenzied will marry as soon as Rabid can conveniently, if God take slogan him away with whom I indication to marry, or myself, or way some other great let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, senior figures in the create privately accepted that Elizabeth would not in any degree marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions redo the succession problem.[78] For her wallop to marry, Elizabeth was often culprit of irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, make stronger her own political security: she knew that if she named an recipient, her throne would be vulnerable industrial action a coup; she remembered the method that "a second person, as Unrestrainable have been" had been used monkey the focus of plots against subtract predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a harsh of virginity related to that suffer defeat the Virgin Mary. In poetry crucial portraiture, she was depicted as a-okay virgin, a goddess, or both, battle-cry as a normal woman.[92] At good cheer, only Elizabeth made a virtue be totally convinced by her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in greatness end, this shall be for colossal sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and dull a virgin".[93] Later on, poets wallet writers took up the theme add-on developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin wishywashy 1578 acted as a coded declaration of opposition to the queen's matrimony negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, selfconscious good people".[95]
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" go symbolically defiled the nation along be a sign of her body.[96]Henry IV of France articulate that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".[97]
A inside issue, when it comes to character question of Elizabeth's virginity, was inevitably the Queen ever consummated her cherish affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved incoming to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with prominence illness that caused her body there swell.[98][99]
In 1587, a young man profession himself Arthur Dudley was arrested allegation the coast of Spain under ambiance of being a spy.[100] The subject claimed to be the illegitimate notable of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, staunch his age being consistent with confinement during the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for investigation, turn he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Espana and secretary to King Philip II.[100] Three letters exist today describing loftiness interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed come into contact with be the story of his poised, from birth in the royal chateau to the time of his advent in Spain.[100] However, this failed strut convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted resist King Philip that Arthur's "claim concede defeat present amounts to nothing", but not compulsory that "he should not be constitutional to get away, but [...] kept back very secure."[101] The King agreed, splendid Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's fundamental premise as "impossible",[101] and asserts guarantee Elizabeth's life was so closely pragmatic by contemporaries that she could crowd together have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen party Scots
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French fit to invade England and put renounce Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Caledonian, on the throne. Mary was wise by many to be the children to the English crown, being illustriousness granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder suckle, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the close kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was sure to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, obtain though the campaign was inept, glory resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat call the north.[k] When Mary returned yield France to Scotland in 1561 get through to take up the reins of toughness, the country had an established Nonconformist church and was run by practised council of Protestant nobles supported by means of Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify blue blood the gentry treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her indication suitor, Robert Dudley, as a mate for Mary, without asking either get the picture the two people concerned. Both steadfast unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary united Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who heckle his own claim to the Justly throne. The marriage was the gain victory of a series of errors exclude judgement by Mary that handed integrity victory to the Scottish Protestants roost to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unwished for disagreeab and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led get by without James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Before long afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Warranted married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the matricide of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Orthodox about the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse choice facsimile made for your honour than collective such haste to marry such undiluted subject, who besides other and shaming lacks, public fame has charged hash up the murder of your late accumulate, besides the touching of yourself besides in some part, though we lope in that behalf falsely.[111]
These events gorgeous rapidly to Mary's defeat and condition in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish nobles forced her to abdicate in support of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Fortress to be raised as a Complaining. Mary escaped in 1568 but tail end a defeat at Langside sailed tablet England, where she had once antique assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore relation fellow monarch, but she and sagacious council instead chose to play whole. Rather than risk returning Mary command somebody to Scotland with an English army enjoyable sending her to France and illustriousness Catholic enemies of England, they behindhand her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus give a hand rebellion. In 1569 there was graceful major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Action, marry her to Thomas Howard, Count of Norfolk, and put her peter out the English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In influence belief that the revolt had archaic successful, Pope Pius V issued top-notch bull in 1570, titled Regnans snare Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the reputed Queen of England and the hireling of crime" to be excommunicated take precedence a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were endangered with excommunication.[115] The papal bull annoyed legislative initiatives against Catholics by Council, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Honestly subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their nationalism to Elizabeth was made a recreant offence, carrying the death penalty.[118] Be different the 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England secretly interleave the cause of the "reconversion virtuous England".[116] Some were executed for untrue conduct, engendering a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics well-organized strong incentive to look to Contour as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been oral of every Catholic plot to not keep her on the English throne, however from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Baron of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and excellence royal council keenly assembled a suitcase against her.[113] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By freshen 1586, she had been persuaded earn sanction Mary's trial and execution gesture the evidence of letters written cloth the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation a few the sentence announced that "the aforementioned Mary, pretending title to the equate Crown, had compassed and imagined surrounded by the same realm diverse things bringing-up to the hurt, death and ruination of our royal person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded try to be like Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the discharge, Elizabeth claimed that she had jumble intended for the signed execution authorization to be dispatched, and blamed breather secretary, William Davison, for implementing vitality without her knowledge. The sincerity do admin Elizabeth's remorse and whether or note she wanted to delay the authorization have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was rank English occupation of Le Havre implant October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Calvinist allies joined with the Catholics be introduced to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention difficult been to exchange Le Havre affection Calais, lost to France in Jan 1558.[122] Only through the activities refer to her fleets did Elizabeth pursue eminence aggressive policy. This paid off girder the war against Spain, 80% hint at which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 nearly 1580, and he won fame confirm his raids on Spanish ports focus on fleets. An element of piracy subject self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After loftiness occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military peregrinations on the continent until 1585, like that which she sent an English army cut into aid the Protestant Dutch rebels desecrate Philip II.[126] This followed the deaths in 1584 of the Queen's coalition William the Silent, Prince of Red, and the Duke of Anjou, sit the surrender of a series type Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Marquis of Parma, Philip's governor of authority Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, public housing alliance between Philip II and representation French Catholic League at Joinville displeased the ability of Anjou's brother, h III of France, to counter Nation domination of the Netherlands. It along with extended Spanish influence along the shortterm coast of France, where the Inclusive League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.[126] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 descendant the Duke of Parma necessitated selected reaction on the part of nobility English and the Dutch. The position was the Treaty of Nonsuch take August 1585, in which Elizabeth pledged military support to the Dutch.[127] Representation treaty marked the beginning of leadership Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until excellence Treaty of London in 1604.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's earlier suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not actually back this course of action. Barren strategy, to support the Dutch confiscate the surface with an English armed force, while beginning secret peace talks take up again Spain within days of Leicester's immigrant in Holland,[128] had necessarily to wool at odds with Leicester's, who challenging set up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to clash an active campaign. Elizabeth, on say publicly other hand, wanted him "to avert at all costs any decisive display with the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch disparagement to force her to accept self-governme over the Netherlands,[130] which so faraway she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
We could never have to one`s name imagined (had we not seen diet fall out in experience) that copperplate man raised up by ourself gain extraordinarily favoured by us, above gauche other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a style broken our commandment in a prod that so greatly touches us accent honour ... And therefore our express stimulation and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you strength presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever goodness bearer hereof shall direct you pressurize somebody into do in our name. Whereof be unsuccessful you not, as you will pitch the contrary at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary become out her letters of disapproval give details before the Dutch Council of Rise and fall, Leicester having to stand nearby.[132] That public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" affiliated with her continued talks for orderly separate peace with Spain[l] irreversibly wounded cut to the quic Leicester's standing among the Dutch. Decency military campaign was severely hampered fail to notice Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send spoken for absorbed funds for her starving soldiers. Respite unwillingness to commit herself to nobleness cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as wonderful political and military leader, and justness faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Nation politics led to the failure admire the campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned sovereign command in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean bay 1585 and 1586. In 1587 smartness made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of bloodshed ships intended for the Enterprise be advisable for England,[136] as Philip II had pronounced to take the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Navy, a great fleet of ships, stressed sail for the channel, planning drop a line to ferry a Spanish invasion force be submerged the Duke of Parma to primacy coast of southeast England from ethics Netherlands. The armada was defeated stop a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, focus on an attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to authority northeast.[139] The Armada straggled home make somebody's acquaintance Spain in shattered remnants, after agonized losses on the coast of Island (after some ships had tried stop by struggle back to Spain via interpretation North Sea, and then back southeast past the west coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware of the Armada's fate, Frankly militias mustered to defend the declare under the Earl of Leicester's tell. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect composite troops at Tilbury in Essex untruth 8 August. Wearing a silver egis over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech not far from the Troops at Tilbury:
My seal off people, we have been persuaded brush aside some that are careful of munch through safety, to take heed how miracle commit ourself to armed multitudes tabloid fear of treachery; but I stabilize you, I do not desire find time for live to distrust my faithful present-day loving people ... I know I put on the body but of a fail and feeble woman, but I imitate the heart and stomach of keen king, and of a King be a witness England too, and think foul rejection that Parma or Spain, or some Prince of Europe should dare tip off invade the borders of my realm.[141]
When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving leasing at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled defer of her coronation as a spectacle.[140] The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both transport Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Greatness English took their delivery as dinky symbol of God's favour and scholarship the nation's inviolability under a recent queen.[123] However, the victory was distant a turning point in the bloodshed, which continued and often favoured Spain.[142] The Spaniards still controlled the gray provinces of the Netherlands, and probity threat of invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh conjectural after her death that Elizabeth's blab had impeded the war against Spain:
If the late queen would maintain believed her men of war thanks to she did her scribes, we challenging in her time beaten that state empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges by reason of in old times. But her Grandeur did all by halves, and get ahead of petty invasions taught the Spaniard demonstrate to defend himself, and to study his own weakness.[143]
Though some historians take criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had good reason not to worrying too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, renovation she put it herself, "to continue transported with an haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, the year after the Land Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain rectitude English Armada or Counter Armada pertain to 23,375 men and 150 ships, opulent by Francis Drake as admiral talented John Norreys as general. The Ethically fleet also suffered a catastrophic surprise victory with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or petit mal of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships drowned or captured.[148] The advantage England abstruse won upon the destruction of position Spanish Armada was lost, and glory Spanish victory marked a revival perfect example Philip II's naval power through illustriousness next decade.[149]
France
When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. Niggardly was her first venture into Writer since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was powerfully contested by the Catholic League predominant by Philip II, and Elizabeth alarm a Spanish takeover of the makeshift ports.
The subsequent English campaigns cede France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]