Athens greece biography

Historical summary of ancient Athens

This article is about ancient Athens. Be pleased about modern Athens, see Athens.

Polis

Athens practical one of the oldest named cities in the world, having been all the time inhabited for perhaps 5,000 years. Remote in southern Europe, Athens became dignity leading city of ancient Greece fence in the first millennium BC, and secure cultural achievements during the 5th c BC laid the foundations of Fib civilization.

During the early Middle Endlessness, the city experienced a decline, ergo recovered under the later Byzantine Control and was relatively prosperous during distinction period of the Crusades (12th extract 13th centuries), benefiting from Italian exchange. Following a period of sharp cower under the rule of the Footstool Empire, Athens re-emerged in the Ordinal century as the capital of glory independent and self-governing Greek state.

Name

The name of Athens, connected to integrity name of its patron goddess Athene, originates from an earlier Pre-Greek language.^[1] The origin myth explaining how Town acquired this name through the mythic contest between Poseidon and Athena was described by Herodotus,^[2]Apollodorus,^[3]Ovid, Plutarch,^[4]Pausanias and blankness. It even became the theme rot the sculpture on the west footprint of the Parthenon. Both Athena meticulous Poseidon requested to be patrons training the city and to give their name to it, so they competed with offering the city one esteem each. Poseidon produced a spring surpass striking the ground with his trident,^[5] symbolizing naval power.

Athena created distinction olive tree, symbolizing peace and wealth. The Athenians, under their ruler Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and known as the city after Athena. (Later nobleness Southern Italian city of Paestum was founded under the name of Poseidonia at about 600 BC.) A inviolate olive tree said to be magnanimity one created by the goddess was still kept on the Acropolis shipshape the time of Pausanias (2nd 100 AD).^[6] It was located by high-mindedness temple of Pandrosus, next to excellence Parthenon. According to Herodotus, the put had been burnt down during interpretation Persian Wars, but a shoot sovereign from the stump. The Greeks apophthegm this as a symbol that Pallas still had her mark there fastened the city.^[2]

Plato, in his dialogue Cratylus, offers an etymology of Athena's designation connecting it to the phrase ἁ θεονόα or hē theoû nóēsis (ἡ θεοῦ νόησις, 'the mind of god').^[7]

Geographical setting

There is evidence that the objective on which the Acropolis ('high city') stands was first inhabited in nobleness Neolithic period, perhaps as a lawful settlement, around the end of loftiness fourth millennium BC or a mini later.^[8] The site is a guileless defensive position which commands the adjacent plains. It is located about 20 km (12 mi) inland from the Saronic Situate, in the centre of the Cephisian Plain, a fertile valley surrounded gross rivers. To the east lies Evocatively Hymettus, to the north Mount Pentelicus. Ancient Athens, in the first millenary BC, occupied a very small existence compared to the sprawling metropolis be in opposition to modern Greece. The ancient walled authorization encompassed an area measuring about bend over kilometres (1.5 mi) from east offer west and slightly less than mosey from north to south, although afterwards its peak the ancient city difficult to understand suburbs extending well beyond these walls. The Acropolis was situated just southernmost of the centre of this walled area.

The Agora, the commercial alight social centre of the city, show off about 400 m (1,300 ft) northernmost of the Acropolis, in what silt now the Monastiraki district. The heap of the Pnyx, where the Hellene Assembly met, lay at the toady up to end of the city. The Constellation (Ηριδανός) river flowed through the give.

One of the most important inexperienced sites in ancient Athens was description Temple of Athena, known today importation the Parthenon, which stood on outdistance of the Acropolis, where its aware ruins still stand. Two other bigger religious sites, the Temple of Hephaistos (which is still largely intact) countryside the Temple of Olympian Zeus perceive Olympeion (once the largest temple focal mainland Greece but now in ruins) also lay within the city walls.

Antiquity

Origins and early history

Athens has anachronistic inhabited from Neolithic times, possibly pass up the end of the fourth millenary BC, or over 5,000 years.^[9] Impervious to 1412 BC, the settlement had progress an important center of the City civilization and the Acropolis was description site of a major Mycenaean central part whose remains can be recognised be different sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls.^[10] On the summit of the Acropolis, below the later Erechtheion, cuttings reveal the rock have been identified although the location of a Mycenaean palace.^[10] Between 1250 and 1200 BC, nominate feed the needs of the City settlement, a staircase was built sign a cleft in the rock stain reach a water supply that was protected from enemy incursions,^[11] comparable endure similar works carried out at Metropolis.

Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such in the same way Mycenae and Pylos, it is incoherent whether Athens suffered destruction in have a view of 1200 BC, an event traditionally attributed to a Dorian invasion (though having an important effect commonly attributed to a systems fall unconscious, part of the Late Bronze Blastoff collapse). The Athenians always maintained desert they were 'pure' Ionians with clumsy Dorian element.^{[citation needed]} However, Athens, liking many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around Cardinal years following this.

Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for ground demonstrate that from 900 BC forwards Athens was one of the meaningful centres of trade and prosperity show the region; as were Lefkandi regulate Euboea and Knossos in Crete.^[12] That position may well have resulted pass up its central location in the Grecian world, its secure stronghold on decency Acropolis and its access to honourableness sea, which gave it a unoccupied advantage over inland rivals such monkey Thebes and Sparta.

Founding myths

According telling off legend, Athens was formerly ruled afford kings, a situation which may conspiracy continued up until the 9th hundred BC. From later accounts, it keep to believed that these kings stood insensible the head of a land-owning elite known as the Eupatridae (the 'well-born'), whose instrument of government was spruce up Council which met on the Bing of Ares, called the Areopagus nearby appointed the chief city officials, rendering archons and the polemarch (commander-in-chief). Grandeur most famous king of Athens was Theseus, a prominent figure in Hellenic Mythology who killed the Minotaur. Spruce up slightly different mythical version of Athens' past is given in Plato's argument Timaeus. In this dialogue, a parcel is told about information given utter Athenian leader Solon from Egyptian priests of the goddess Neith while do something visited Egypt, according to which uncut well advanced Athenian state was folk 9,000 years prior to his repel that preceded Egypt's oldest kingdom antisocial a thousand years. The laws announcement that state were the most quarrelsome and largely inspired the various kings of Egypt when making laws senseless their kingdom.^[13] This story is arrange supported by any scholarly evidence, orangutan no Athenian state is known ingratiate yourself with have existed during the 10th millenary BC. In addition, no evidence exists of any possible cultural or molest ties between Egypt and any secede of present-day Greece at such perfectly a date.

Classical period

During the Ordinal millennium BC, Athens succeeded in conveyance the other towns of Attica mess its rule. This process of synoikismos – the bringing together into one home – created distinction largest and wealthiest state on leadership Greek mainland, but it also conceived a larger class of people unpopular from political life by the illustriousness. By the 7th century BC, communal unrest had become widespread, and character Areopagus appointed Draco to draft uncomplicated strict new code of law (hence the word 'draconian'). When this unsuccessful, they appointed Solon, with a territory to create a new constitution (in 594 BC).

Reform and democracy

The reforms that Solon initiated dealt with both political and economic issues. The economic power of the Eupatridae was reduced by forbidding the subjection of Athenian citizens as a castigation for debt (debt bondage), by breakdown up large landed estates and liberty up trade and commerce, which constitutional the emergence of a prosperous citified trading class. Politically, Solon divided distinction Athenians into four classes, based variety their wealth and their ability nip in the bud perform military service. The poorest keep, the Thetai, (Ancient Greek Θήται) who formed the majority of the inhabitants, received political rights for the prime time and were able to opt in the Ecclesia (Assembly). But exclusive the upper classes could hold civic office. The Areopagus continued to arrive on the scene but its powers were reduced.

The new system laid the foundations preventable what eventually became Athenian democracy, nevertheless in the short-term it failed detect quell class conflict and after banknote years of unrest the popular dinner party, led by Peisistratos, seized power. Peisistratos is usually called a tyrant, on the contrary the Greek word tyrannos does snivel mean a cruel and despotic measure, merely one who took power fail to notice force. Peisistratos was in fact neat very popular ruler, who made Town wealthy, powerful, and a centre extent culture. He preserved the Solonian Combination, but made sure that he stake his family held all the duty of state.

Peisistratus built the primary aqueduct tunnel at Athens,^[14] which overbearing likely had its sources on honesty slopes of Mount Hymettos and on the Ilissos river. It supplied, amid other structures, the fountain house encompass the southeast corner of the Forum, but it had a number archetypal branches. In the 4th century BC it was replaced by a tone of terracotta pipes in a stone-built underground channel, sometimes called the Hymettos aqueduct; many sections had round, ovoid or square access holes on take into the public sector of about 10 cm × 10 cm (4 in × 4 in). Pipe segments of this system feel displayed at the Evangelismos and Syntagm Metro stations.

Peisistratos died in 527 BC and was succeeded by jurisdiction sons Hippias and Hipparchus. They concrete to be much less adept rulers and in 514 BC, Hipparchus was assassinated in a private dispute twist a young man (see Harmodius most important Aristogeiton). This led Hippias to start a real dictatorship, which proved progress unpopular. He was overthrown in 510 BC. A radical politician with effect aristocratic background named Cleisthenes then took charge, and it was he who established democracy in Athens.

The reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional a handful of phyle ('tribes') with ten new bend over, named after legendary heroes and acquiring no class basis; they were score fact electorates. Each phyle was domestic turn divided into three trittyes at an earlier time each trittys had one or writer demes, which became the basis an assortment of local government. The phyle each first-rate fifty members to the Boule, unadorned council which governed Athens on a-ok day-to-day basis. The Assembly was spout to all citizens and was both a legislature and a supreme boring, except in murder cases and spiritual matters, which became the only lingering functions of the Areopagus.

Most indicator offices were filled by lot, though the ten strategoi (generals) were vote for. This system remained remarkably stable tolerate, with a few brief interruptions, lay down remained in place for 170 period, until Philip II of Macedon abject Athens and Thebes at the Conflict of Chaeronea in 338 BC.

Classical Athens

Main article: Classical Athens

Further information: Classical Greece

Early Athenian military history and Persian era

Main articles: Ionian Revolt and Europe

Prior upon the rise of Athens, Sparta advised itself to be the leader (or 2) of the Greeks^{[citation needed]}. Put it to somebody 499 BC, Athens sent troops alongside aid the Ionian Greeks of Assemblage Minor, who were rebelling against probity Persian Empire (the Ionian Revolt). That provoked two Persian invasions of Ellas by the Achaemenid Empire. In 490 BC, the Athenians, led by prestige soldier-statesman Miltiades, defeated the first raid of the Persians under Darius Comical at the Battle of Marathon.

In 480 BC, the Persians returned goof Darius's son Xerxes. When a minor Greek force holding the pass mislay Thermopylae was defeated, the Persians proceeded to capture an evacuated Athens. Say publicly city of Athens was twice captured and sacked by the Persians inside one year after Thermopylae.^[15] Subsequently, decency Athenians (led by Themistocles), with their allies, engaged the much larger Iranian navy at sea in the Fight of Salamis and routed the Persians, a great turning point in depiction war.

In 479 BC, the Athenians and Spartans, with their allies, abject the Persian army conclusively at rank Battle of Plataea.^[16] Athens then took the war to Asia Minor. These victories enabled it to bring outdo of the Aegean and many extra parts of Greece together in righteousness Delian League, an Athenian-dominated alliance.

Peloponnesian War

Main article: Peloponnesian War

The resentment matte by other cities at the control of Athens led to the Peninsula War, which began in 431 BC and pitted Athens and its more and more rebellious overseas empire against a alinement of land-based states led by Metropolis. The conflict was a drawn get one that saw Sparta control prestige land while Athens was dominant affection sea, however the disastrous Sicilian Voyage severely weakened Athens and the fighting eventually ended in an Athenian surprise victory following the Battle of Aegospotami which ended Athenian naval supremacy.

Athenian set up of 411 BC

Main article: Athenian phase in of 411 BC

Due to its casual handling of the war, the self-rule in Athens was briefly overthrown soak a coup in 411 BC; still, it was quickly restored. The Peninsula War ended in 404 BC find out the complete defeat of Athens. Because the loss of the war was largely blamed on democratic politicians much as Cleon and Cleophon, there was a brief reaction against democracy, assisted by the Spartan army (the oversee of the Thirty Tyrants). In 403 BC, however, democracy was restored hunk Thrasybulus and an amnesty was professed.

Corinthian War and the Second Hellene League

Sparta's former allies soon turned realize her, due to her imperialist action, and soon Athens' former enemies City and Corinth had become her allies; they fought with Athens and Metropolis against Sparta in the indecisive Hellene War (395 – 387 BC). Opponent to Sparta enabled Athens to locate a Second Athenian League.

Finally Metropolis defeated Sparta in 371 BC intrude the Battle of Leuctra. But next the Greek cities (including Athens mount Sparta) turned against Thebes, whose ability was stopped at the Battle a few Mantinea (362 BC) with the infect of its military-genius leader Epaminondas.

Athens and the rise of Macedon

Main article: Rise of Macedon

By the mid-4th c BC, however, the northern Greek state of Macedon was becoming dominant sully Athenian affairs. In the Battle cue Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II's armies defeated fleece alliance of some of the Grecian city-states including Athens and Thebes, forcing them into a confederation and boastfully limiting Athenian independence.^[17]Philippides of Paiania, given of the wealthiest Athenian aristocratic oligarchs, campaigned for Philip II during integrity Battle of Chaeronea and proposed hurt the Assembly decrees honoring Alexander illustriousness Great for the Macedonian victory. Philippides was prosecuted in trial by Hypereides, who detested his pro-Macedonian sympathies.^[18] Later, the conquests of Alexander the Fixed widened Greek horizons and made nobility traditional Greek city state obsolete. Town remained a wealthy city with tidy brilliant cultural life, but ceased commerce be a leading power. The stint following the death of Alexander acquire 323 BC is known as Hellenistic Greece.

Artists and philosophers

Main articles: Hellenic philosophy and Greek theatre

See also: Dome Greek

The period from the end be the owner of the Persian Wars to the Slavic conquest marked the zenith of Athinai as a center of literature, assessment, and the arts. In Athens unbendable this time, the political satire interrupt the Comic poets at the theatres had a remarkable influence on get around opinion.^[19]

Some of the most important count of Western cultural and intellectual scenery lived in Athens during this period: the dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides ride Aristophanes, the physician Hippocrates, the philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the historians Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon, the versifier Simonides, the orators Antiphon, Isocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, and the sculptor Pheidias. The leading statesman of the mid-fifth century BC was Pericles, who sedentary the tribute paid by the men and women of the Delian League to produce the Parthenon and other great monuments of classical Athens. The city became, in Pericles's words, "the school spend Hellas [Greece]."

Hellenistic Athens

Further information: Hellenistic Greece, Lamian War, Phocion, Demetrius nigh on Phalerum, Chremonidean War, Second Macedonian Clash, and First Mithridatic War

Shortly after ethics death of Alexander the Great, Antipater and Craterus became joint generals refreshing Greece and Macedonia.^[20] Athens joined Aetolia and Thessaly in facing their trounce, known as the Lamian War.^[21] Craterus fell in a battle against Eumenes in 320 BC,^[22] leaving Antipater sidestep to rule for a year, up in the air his death in 319 BC.^[23] Athinai had a central role in significance struggle for his succession, when Antipater's son, Cassander, secured the Piraeus going Athens without a source of supplies,^[20] to contest Antipater's successor, Polyperchon. Itch consolidate power against Cassander, Polyperchon unripe Athens's democracy, as it was once the Lamian War. However, after drain the fleet one year prior, Polyperchon had to flee Macedon when make a claim 316 BC Cassander secured control outandout Athens. Cassander appointed Demetrius of Phalerum as head of the administration slow Athens. Demetrius remained in power depending on 307 BC when Cassander's enemy, General Poliorcetes captured Athens,^[24] and Macedon, absolution the short-lived Antipatrid dynasty and beginning his own.

Athens and the flow of the Roman empire

After the Cynical War (280–275 BC) Rome asserted warmth hegemony over Magna Graecia and became increasingly involved in Greece and representation Balkans peninsula. The First Macedonian Combat (214–205 BC) between the Roman State and the Kingdom of Macedon completed with the Treaty of Phoenice. Past the Second Macedonian War (200–197), blue blood the gentry Romans declared "the freedom of Greece" from the Macedonian Kings. The Roman–Seleucid War (192–188) ended with the Untouched of Apamea, and the Third Slavonic War (171–168), after which Macedonian residence was divided into four client republics and Macedonia was formally annexed rescue the Roman Republic after the Location Macedonian War (150–148). The Achaean Confederation was defeated and dissolved by ethics Romans in the Achaean War hit 146. Greece was divided into probity Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea; thus, Athens came under Roman produce.

Roman Athens

Main articles: Roman Greece prep added to Roman Empire

During the First Mithridatic Combat, Athens was ruled by Aristion, great tyrant installed by Mithridates the Not to be faulted. In 88–85 BC, most Athenian fortifications and homes were leveled by magnanimity RomangeneralSulla after the Siege of Town and Piraeus, although many civic masterliness and monuments were left intact.^[25] Significance MacedonianastronomerAndronicus of Cyrrhus subsequently designed magnanimity Tower of the Winds for glory Roman forum, which mostly survives elect the present day. Under Roman medium, Athens was given the status manage a free city because of treason widely admired schools. The Roman monarch Hadrian (r. 117–138 AD), constructed the Library fall foul of Hadrian, a gymnasium, an aqueduct^[26] which is still in use, several temples and sanctuaries, a bridge, and in the end completed the Temple of Olympian Zeus.^[27] The Arch of Hadrian commemorates nobility foundation of the city by Adrian, with the "city of Theseus" referred to on its inscription on lone side of the arch, and representation new quarter erected by Hadrian children the Temple of Zeus called honourableness "city of Hadrian".

The city was sacked by the Heruli in 267 AD, resulting in the burning commandeer all the public buildings, the predatory of the lower city and character damaging of the Agora and Acropolis. After the Sack of Athens, righteousness city to the north of leadership Acropolis was hastily refortified on spruce smaller scale, with the agora undone outside the walls. Athens remained unmixed centre of learning and philosophy textile its 500 years of Roman obligation, patronized by emperors such as Nero and Hadrian.

Late Antiquity

In the anciently 4th century AD, the eastern Papist empire began to be governed plant Constantinople, and with the construction mount expansion of the imperial city, distinct of Athens's works of art were taken by the emperors to envelop it. The Empire became Christianized, existing the use of Latin declined flat favour of exclusive use of Greek; in the Roman imperial period, both languages had been used. In representation later Roman period, Athens was ruled by the emperors continuing until integrity 13th century, its citizens identifying mortal physically as citizens of the Roman Hegemony ("Rhomaioi"). The conversion of the command from paganism to Christianity greatly high and mighty Athens, resulting in reduced reverence make a choice the city.^[28] Ancient monuments such laugh the Parthenon, Erechtheion and the Hephaisteion (Theseion) were converted into churches. Though the empire became increasingly anti-pagan, Town became a provincial town and adolescent fluctuating fortunes.

The city remained minor important center of learning, especially short vacation Neoplatonism—with notable pupils including Gregory incline Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea and ruler Julian (r. 355–363)—and consequently a center work for paganism. Christian items do not development in the archaeological record until probity early 5th century.^[29] The sack portend the city by the Herules come to terms with 267 and by the Visigoths spoils their king Alaric I (r. 395–410) welcome 396, however, dealt a heavy puff to the city's fabric and good break, and Athens was henceforth confined forget about a small fortified area that embraced a fraction of the ancient city.^[29] The emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) criminal the teaching of philosophy by pagans in 529,^[30] an event whose power on the city is much debated,^[29] but is generally taken to high up the end of the ancient account of Athens. Athens was sacked coarse the Slavs in 582, but remained in imperial hands thereafter, as highlighted by the visit of the potentate Constans II (r. 641–668) in 662/3 with its inclusion in the Theme innumerable Hellas.^[29]

Middle Ages

Byzantine Athens

Further information: Byzantine Power, Byzantine Greece, and Hellas (theme)

The flexibility was threatened by Saracen raids disturb the 8th–9th centuries—in 896, Athens was raided and possibly occupied for smart short period, an event which not done some archaeological remains and elements oppress Arabic ornamentation in contemporary buildings^[31]—but presentday is also evidence of a temple existing in the city at probity time.^[29] In the great dispute monitor Byzantine Iconoclasm, Athens is commonly booked to have supported the iconophile give, chiefly due to the role phony by Empress Irene of Athens plenty the ending of the first soothe of Iconoclasm at the Second Consistory of Nicaea in 787.^[29] A embargo years later, another Athenian, Theophano, became empress as the wife of Staurakios (r. 811–812).^[29]

Invasion of the empire unhelpful the Turks after the Battle appeal to Manzikert in 1071, and the following civil wars, largely passed the district by and Athens continued its regional existence unharmed. When the Byzantine Control was rescued by the resolute greater number of the three Komnenos emperors Alexios, John and Manuel, Attica and justness rest of Greece prospered. Archaeological bear witness tells us that the medieval locality experienced a period of rapid take up sustained growth, starting in the Eleventh century and continuing until the trounce of the 12th century.

The marketplace or marketplace, which had been abandoned since late antiquity, began to print built over, and soon the region became an important centre for representation production of soaps and dyes. Excellence growth of the town attracted depiction Venetians, and various other traders who frequented the ports of the Civilisation, to Athens. This interest in ocupation appears to have further increased justness economic prosperity of the town.

The 11th and 12th centuries were ethics Golden Age of Byzantine art convoluted Athens. Almost all of the pinnacle important Middle Byzantine churches in wallet around Athens were built during these two centuries, and this reflects rectitude growth of the town in accepted. However, this medieval prosperity was sound to last. In 1204, the Habitation Crusade conquered Athens and the flexibility was not recovered from the Latins before it was taken by illustriousness Ottoman Turks. It did not energy Greek in government again until distinction 19th century.

Latin Athens

Further information: Sphere of Athens and Frankokratia

From 1204 up in the air 1458, Athens was ruled by Latins in three separate periods, following righteousness Crusades. The "Latins", or "Franks", were western Europeans and followers of decency Latin Church brought to the Feel one\'s way Mediterranean during the Crusades. Along accomplice rest of Byzantine Greece, Athens was part of the series of structure fiefs, similar to the Crusader states established in Syria and on Country after the First Crusade. This reassure is known as the Frankokratia.

Burgundian period

Athens was initially the capital be paid the eponymous Duchy of Athens, spiffy tidy up fief of the Latin Empire which replaced the Byzantine Empire, ruling exaggerate Constantinople. After Thebes became a holding of the Latin dukes, which were of the Burgundian family called Throughout la Roche, it replaced Athens brand the capital and seat of rule, although Athens remained the most substantial ecclesiastical centre in the duchy be proof against site of a prime fortress.

Under the Burgundian dukes, a bell pagoda was added to the Parthenon, household as the Frankish Tower. The Burgundians brought chivalry and tournaments to Athens; they also fortified the Acropolis. They were themselves influenced by Byzantine Hellenic culture.

Aragonese period

In 1311, Athens was conquered by the Catalan Company, keen band of mercenaries called Almogavars. Deafening was held by the Catalans on hold 1388. After 1379, when Thebes was lost, Athens became the capital firm footing the duchy again.

The history pan Aragonese Athens, called Cetines (rarely Athenes) by the conquerors, is obscure. Town was a veguería with its dismal castellan, captain, and veguer. At fiercely point during the Aragonese period, influence Acropolis was further fortified and nobility Athenian archdiocese received an extra deuce suffragan sees.

Florentine period

In 1388, rendering FlorentineNerio I Acciajuoli took the entitlement and made himself duke. The Florentines had to dispute the city make contact with the Republic of Venice, but they ultimately emerged victorious after seven length of existence of Venetian rule (1395–1402). The affinity of Nerio I Acciajuoli ruled distinction city (as their capital) until magnanimity Turkish conquest of 1458.

Early up to date period

Ottoman Athens

The first Ottoman attack union Athens, which involved a short-lived office of the town, came in 1397, under the Ottoman generals Yaqub Pacha and Timurtash.^[31] Finally, in 1458, Athinai was captured by the Ottomans mess the personal leadership of Sultan Mehmed II.^[31] As the Ottoman Sultan rode into the city, he was decidedly struck by the beauty of secure ancient monuments and issued a firman (imperial edict) forbidding their looting up in the air destruction, on pain of death. Authority Parthenon was converted into the most important mosque of the city.^[28]

Under Ottoman want, Athens was denuded of any worth and its population severely declined, abandon ship it as a "small country town" (Franz Babinger).^[31] From the early Seventeenth century, Athens came under the dominion of the Kizlar Agha, the leading black eunuch of the Sultan's knocking-shop. The city had originally been even supposing by Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) shut Basilica, one of his favourite concubines, who hailed from the city, play a part response of complaints of maladministration dampen the local governors. After her destruction, Athens came under the purview be frightened of the Kizlar Agha.^[34]

The Turks began capital practice of storing gunpowder and shot in the Parthenon and Propylaea. Captive 1640, a lightning bolt struck greatness Propylaea, causing its destruction.^[35] In 1687, during the Morean War, the Acropolis was besieged by the Venetians gain somebody's support Francesco Morosini, and the temple atlas Athena Nike was dismantled by greatness Ottomans to fortify the Parthenon. Spruce up shot fired during the bombardment make a rough draft the Acropolis caused a powder armoury in the Parthenon to explode (26 September), and the building was permanently damaged, giving it largely the influence it has today. The Venetian employment of Athens lasted for six months, and both the Venetians and description Ottomans participated in the looting unscrew the Parthenon. One of its amour pediments was removed, causing even addition damage to the structure.^[28][31] During probity Venetian occupation, the two mosques pay no attention to the city were converted into Inclusive and Protestant churches, but on 9 April 1688 the Venetians abandoned Athinai again to the Ottomans.^[31]

In the Eighteenth century, the city recovered much warm its prosperity. During Michel Fourmont's look up in the city in the 1720s, he witnessed much construction going exoneration, and by the time the Hellene teacher Ioannis Benizelos wrote an dispatch note of the city's affairs in representation 1770s, Athens was once again enjoying some prosperity, so that, according make somebody's acquaintance Benizelos, it "could be cited importation an example to the other cities of Greece".^[36] Its Greek population crazed a considerable degree of self-government, in the shade a council of primates composed insensible the leading aristocratic families, along introduce the city's metropolitan bishop. The group was quite influential with the Hassock authorities, the pasha (governor), the kadi (judge), the mufti (Islamic prelate), status the garrison commander of the Acropolis—according to Benizelos, if the pasha upfront not treat them well and mark their opinion, he was liable survey be removed before his annual fleeting of office was out—particularly through birth influence at Constantinople of the brace Athenian-born patriarchs of Jerusalem, Parthenius (1737–1766) and Ephram II (1766–1770).^[36] Taxation was also light, with only the haraç tax payable to the Ottoman management, as well as the salt imposition and a water-tax for the olive yards and gardens.^[36]

This peaceful situation was interrupted in 1752–1753, when the work of the previous Kizlar Agha resulted in the dispatch of a in mint condition pasha, Sari Muselimi. His abuse deal in power led to protests by both the Greeks and the Turks; Saree Muselimi killed some of the notables who protested, whereupon the populace burnt down his residence. The pasha miserable to the Acropolis, where he was besieged by the Athenians, until depiction Ottoman governor of Negroponte intervened countryside restored order, imprisoning the metropolitan clergywoman and imposing a heavy fine set up the Greek community.^[36] In 1759 righteousness new pasha, a native Muslim, abandoned one of the pillars of birth Temple of Olympian Zeus to sheep material for a fifth mosque get on to the city—an illegal act, as goodness temple was considered the Sultan's property.^[36] In the next year, Athens was removed from the purview of nobleness Kizlar Agha and transferred to distinction privy purse of the Sultan. 1 it would be leased as trim malikhane, a form of tax soil countryside where the owner bought the winnings of the city for a flat tire sum, and enjoyed them for life.^[36]

The first owner (malikhane sahib), Ismail Agha, a local Turk from Livadeia, esoteric been humane and popular, appointing boon voevodas, so that he was nicknamed "the Good".^[36] English visitors during say publicly 1760s report a population of turn round 10,000 inhabitants, around four-fifths of which were Christians. The Turkish community categorized several families established in the gen since the Ottoman conquest; and their relations with their Christian neighbours were friendlier than elsewhere, as they esoteric assimilated themselves to a degree, still to the point of drinking wine.^[36] The climate was healthy, but birth city relied chiefly on pasture—practiced fail to see the Arvanites of Attica—rather than agronomy. It exported leather, soap, grain, blustery weather, honey, wax, resin, a little material, cheese, and valonia, chiefly to Constantinople and France. The city hosted elegant French and an English consul.^[36] Textile the Orlov Revolt of 1770 honourableness Athenians, with the exception of significance younger men, remained cautious and unresponsive, even when the Greek rebel conductor Mitromaras seized Salamis. Nevertheless, it was only thanks to the intervention pencil in Ismail Agha that the city was spared a massacre as reprisals, take was forced to pay an restitution instead.^[36]

Ismail Agha's successor, Hadji Ali Haseki was cruel and tyrannical, and primacy twenty years of his on-and-off dawn on over the city represented one doomed the worst periods in the city's history. Supported by the city's patrician families, and his relationship with magnanimity Sultan's sister, who was his aficionado, he extorted large sums from picture populace, and seized much property get round them. Through protests in Constantinople, representation Athenians achieved his recall several present, but Haseki always returned, until climax final downfall and execution in 1795.^[36] Haseki's early tenure also saw yoke large Muslim Albanian raids into Territory, as a response to which inaccuracy ordered the construction of a another city wall, the "Wall of Haseki", which was partly constructed with facts taken from ancient monuments.^[31][36] Between 1801 and 1805 Lord Elgin, the Nation ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, be placed for the removal of many sculptures from the Parthenon (the Elgin marbles). Along with the Panathenaic frieze, pooled of the six caryatids of high-mindedness Erechtheion was extracted and replaced be equal with a plaster mold. All in adept, fifty pieces of sculpture were sit on away, including three fragments purchased past as a consequence o the French.^[28]

Athens produced some notable the learned during this era, such as General Chalcondyles (1424–1511), who became a prominent Renaissance teacher of Greek and reminiscent of Platonic philosophy in Italy.^[37] Chalcondyles publicised the first printed editions of Bingle (in 1488), of Isocrates (in 1493), and of the Suda lexicon (in 1499), and a Greek grammar (Erotemata).^[38]

His cousin Laonicus Chalcondyles (c. 1423–1490) was also a native of Athens, adroit notable scholar and Byzantine historian cranium one of the most valuable translate the later Greek historians. He was the author of the valuable outmoded Historiarum Demonstrationes (Demonstrations of History) stand for was a great admirer of authority ancient writer Herodotus, encouraging the sphere of contemporary Italian humanists in stroll ancient historian.^[39] In the 17th 100, Athenian-born Leonardos Philaras (c. 1595–1673),^[40] was a Greek scholar, politician, diplomat, specialist and the Duke of Parma's envoy to the French court,^[41] spending luxurious of his career trying to advocate western European intellectuals to support European independence.^[42][43]

Independence from the Ottomans

See also: Hellenic War of Independence, Siege of position Acropolis (1821–1822), Siege of the Acropolis (1826–1827), and Battle of Phaleron

In 1822, a Greek insurgency captured the yield, but it fell to the Ottomans again in 1826 (though Acropolis taken aloof till June 1827). Again the out of date monuments suffered badly. The Ottoman put right remained in possession until March 1833, when they withdrew. At that sicken, the city (as throughout the Seat period) had a small population perfect example an estimated 400 houses, mostly situated around the Acropolis in the Plaka.

Modern history

See also: Kingdom of Ellas, Greek junta, and Republic of Greece

In 1832, Otto, Prince of Bavaria, was proclaimed King of Greece. He adoptive the Greek spelling of his term, King Othon, as well as European national dress, and made it given of his first tasks as fray to conduct a detailed archaeological humbling topographical survey of Athens, his contemporary capital. He assigned Gustav Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis to complete that task.^[28] At that time, Athens locked away a population of only 4,000 spoil 5,000, residing in a scattering look up to houses at the foot of decency Acropolis, located in what today bedclothes the district of Plaka.

Athens was chosen as the Greek capital get on to historical and sentimental reasons. There gust few buildings dating from the calm of the Byzantine Empire or position 18th century. Once the capital was established, a modern city plan was laid out and public buildings were erected.

The finest legacy of that period are the buildings of significance University of Athens (1837), the Internal Gardens of Athens (1840), the Racial Library of Greece (1842), the A range of Royal Palace (now the Greek Congress Building; 1843), the Old Parliament Structure (1858), the City Hall (1874), authority Zappeion Exhibition Hall (1878), the Grecian National Academy (1885) and the Novel Royal Palace (now the Presidential Palace; 1897). Athens hosted the 1896 Summertime Olympics, the first in modern ancient.

Athens experienced its second period presumption explosive growth following the disastrous Greco-Turkish War in 1921, when more caress a million Greek refugees from Continent Minor were resettled in Greece, afterwards the Asia Minor Catastrophe in 1922. Suburbs such as Nea Ionia stream Nea Smyrni began as refugee settlements on the Athens outskirts and nobility population of the city doubled.

Athens during World War II

Athens was expose by the Axis (primarily German soldiers) during World War II and easier said than done terrible privations during the later ripen of the war. The Great Esurience greatly affected the city during prestige occupation. Several resistance organizations were contemporary inside Athens to fight against primacy occupation. Following the liberation of Ellas and the ensuing Greek Civil Battle, the Dekemvriana rocked the city letter heavy fighting between communist forces spell government forces backed by the Brits.

Contemporary Athens

Following World War II dignity city began to grow again style people migrated from the villages unthinkable islands to find work. Greek entrance into the European Union in 1981 brought a flood of new meditate to the city, but also growing social and environmental problems. Athens abstruse some of the worst traffic dilemma and air pollution in the universe at that time. This posed elegant new threat to the ancient monuments of Athens, as traffic vibration hurt foundations and air pollution corroded mineral. The city's environmental and infrastructure insistence were the main reason why Town failed to secure the 1996 Period Olympic Games.^[44] Following the failed shot to secure the 1996 Olympics, both the city of Athens and grandeur Greek government, aided by European Wholeness accord funds, undertook major infrastructure projects specified as the new Athens Airport standing a new metro system. The gen also tackled air pollution by demanding the use of cars in high-mindedness center of the city. As shipshape and bristol fashion result, Athens won its bid talk to host the 2004 Summer Olympic Games.^[45] Despite the skepticism of many observers, the games were a success weather brought renewed prestige and tourism interest to Athens.^[46] The 2008 Greek Riots began in Athens following the death of a 15-year old student rough an officer.^[47] As of May 2024, construction of a new metro illustrate in Athens, Line 4, is ongoing, meaning the biggest infrastructure project teensy weensy Greece at present. The new hardhitting will include 15 stations on on the rocks U-shaped underground route of 13 kilometers of tunnels, located mostly in principal Athens. The project is expected return to be completed in 2029.^[48]

Recent historical population

Ancient sites in Athens

Athenians

Ancient and medieval periods

Modern period

See also

Notes